The Pashtunistan Movement: History, Key Figures, and Modern Revival in Afghanistan-Pakistan Border Tensions

The Pashtunistan Movement: Seeking Unity Across a Divided Homeland

The Pashtunistan Movement is a nationalist effort advocating for the self-determination of the Pashtun people, who are primarily concentrated in southern and eastern Afghanistan and northwestern Pakistan. Pashtunistan refers to the historical and cultural region inhabited by Pashtuns, an Iranic ethnic group speaking Pashto, with a population estimated at around 100 million.

This area spans from south of the Amu River in Afghanistan to west of the Indus River in Pakistan, encompassing diverse terrains like the Hindu Kush mountains and Registan Desert. The movement’s core demand is either an independent Pashtun state or unification of Pashtun-majority territories under Afghanistan, rejecting the Durand Line as an artificial colonial boundary that divides families, tribes, and cultural ties. Rooted in ethnic identity and the Pashtunwali code a traditional honor system emphasizing hospitality, revenge, and autonomy, the movement has evolved from anti-colonial resistance to modern calls for rights and autonomy amid ongoing conflicts.

Historical Origins: Colonial Legacies and the Durand Line

The Pashtunistan concept traces back to the 19th-century “Great Game” rivalry between British India and Russia, where Afghanistan served as a buffer. In 1893, British diplomat Sir Mortimer Durand negotiated the Durand Line with Afghan Emir Abdur Rahman Khan, a one-page agreement that separated spheres of influence, assigning roughly half of Pashtun territories to British India, including parts of Balochistan. This line, about 2,640 km long, was surveyed from 1894–1896 but left some sections undefined due to rugged terrain. The emir accepted it for British subsidies and arms but later claimed it was imposed under duress.

Ancient Pashtun lands, known historically as “Afghanistan” in medieval texts, saw influences from empires like the Achaemenids, Greeks, and Mughals. Pashtun resistance figures like Bayazid Pir Roshan in the 16th century and Khushal Khan Khattak in the 17th led rebellions against Mughal rule. Autonomy was achieved in 1709 under Mirwais Hotak, and unity under Ahmad Shah Durrani in 1747, who founded the Durrani Empire. The 19th-century Anglo-Afghan Wars further eroded Pashtun territories, with the Third War in 1919 reaffirming the Durand Line via the Treaty of Rawalpindi.

After the 1947 partition of India, Pakistan inherited the line under the principle of uti possidetis juris—inheriting colonial boundaries. Afghanistan contested this, voting against Pakistan’s UN membership and holding a 1949 loya jirga to declare pre-1947 treaties void, viewing the line as a colonial imposition dividing Pashtuns (42–60% of Afghanistan’s population, 15–20% of Pakistan’s). This sparked decades of tensions, including border skirmishes in the 1950s–1960s and Afghan support for Pashtun separatists.

Key Figures and Early Advocacy

Prominent leaders have shaped the movement. Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan, known as Bacha Khan or the “Frontier Gandhi,” founded the nonviolent Khudai Khidmatgar (“Servants of God”) in 1929, mobilizing Pashtuns against British rule through Gandhian principles. He advocated for Pashtun unity and boycotted the 1947 NWFP referendum, which saw 99% vote for Pakistan. Mirzali Khan (Faqir of Ipi) led guerrilla resistance against British and later Pakistani forces.

In Afghanistan, President Mohammed Daoud Khan (1953–1963, 1973–1978) aggressively promoted Pashtunistan, attempting invasions like in Bajaur (1960–1961) and closing borders. Other figures include Ahmad Shah Durrani as a unifier and modern leaders like Asfandyar Wali Khan of the Awami National Party.

Evolution Amid Conflicts and Geopolitics

The movement intensified during the Cold War, with Afghanistan under Soviet influence using Pashtunistan to undermine Pakistan, a US ally. The 1979 Soviet invasion shifted focus, as Pakistan hosted mujahideen, turning the border porous for arms and refugees. Post-1992, ethnic rivalries in Afghanistan reduced Pashto prominence under Tajik-led governments.

Pakistan countered by integrating Pashtun areas: merging princely states in 1969, renaming NWFP to Khyber Pakhtunkhwa in 2010, and incorporating FATA in 2018. To weaken nationalism, Pakistan exploited Islamism since the 1970s, backing groups like the Taliban, which are predominantly Pashtun. This led to a symbiotic relationship between nationalists and Islamists against perceived Punjabi domination.

Current Status: Revival Through PTM and Recent Developments

Today, the movement has diminished in secessionist fervor due to Pashtun integration in Pakistan (e.g., presidents like Ayub Khan, Prime Minister Imran Khan) and emphasis on autonomy. However, the Pashtun Tahaffuz Movement (PTM), emerging in 2014 as Mehsud Tahaffuz Movement and expanding in 2018 under Manzoor Pashteen, has revitalized it. PTM demands rights for Pashtuns affected by military operations, demining, and an end to extrajudicial killings, framing issues as racial profiling and state oppression.

Recent developments show ongoing activism: In October 2024, PTM’s Pashtun Grand Jirga demanded rejection of the Durand Line, Pakistani military withdrawal, open borders, and Taliban action on girls’ education, threatening a tribal army. Protests across Pashtun districts accused Pakistan of fueling terrorism. In February 2026, Pashteen alleged cross-border targeting of Pashtuns, violating international law. Afghanistan supports PTM, straining ties with Pakistan.

Impacts on Afghanistan and Pakistan

The movement exacerbates bilateral mistrust: Afghanistan’s irredentism bolsters domestic Pashtun support but fuels ethnic rivalries with non-Pashtuns like Tajiks and Hazaras. For Pakistan, it poses a security threat, prompting integration and support for anti-Afghan groups. The porous border enables smuggling, drug trafficking (Afghanistan produces 93% of global opiates), and militant havens, contributing to insurgencies like the Taliban and TTP. Post-9/11 US drone strikes and Pakistani operations highlight counterterrorism roles but stoke resentment.

Geopolitically, it ties into rivalries: Pakistan seeks “strategic depth” in Afghanistan against India, while Afghanistan demands sea access via Balochistan. Refugee crises (e.g., 1979, 1992) gave Pakistan leverage in Afghan affairs. Pakistan’s 2017 border fencing is condemned as dividing tribes.

Conclusion: Perpetual Division or Path to Resolution?

The Pashtunistan Movement exemplifies colonial legacies fueling modern instability, with demands rooted in ethnic unity clashing against state sovereignty. While internationally recognized as Pakistan’s border, Afghanistan’s refusal demands dialogue. PTM’s revival signals potential escalation, especially amid Taliban rule and border clashes. Experts suggest joint development, tribal consultations, and economic ties to mitigate risks, but without mutual recognition, it risks remaining a “line of hatred,” as Hamid Karzai described the Durand Line. In an era of nationalism and terrorism, resolving this could foster regional peace, though a full “Islamic Pashtunistan” remains a distant, ominous possibility.